Developmental Apraxia Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments Essay

Apraxia of speech is a neurological condition in which a person finds it impossible to move their mouth or tongue to speak (Apraxia, 2005). There are two main types of apraxia; they are acquired apraxia of speech and developmental apraxia of speech (Apraxia of Speech, 2002). This paper is about Developmental Apraxia of Speech, its symptoms, causes, and appropriate treatments. Developmental apraxia of speech is also called childhood apraxia of speech, because it is present from birth (2002). There are many symptoms of developmental apraxia, and each child may have different symptoms (Childhood, 1997). Some symptoms of very young children include problems eating, not cooing as an infant, late first words, problems combining sounds, and deleting difficult sounds and replacing them with easier ones more often than normal children (1997). In older children, symptoms can include making inconsistent sound errors, understanding of language better than their ability to talk, difficulty imitating speech, difficulty saying long phrases or words clearly, difficulty for others to understand their speech, and speech which sounds choppy or monotonous (1997). Other symptoms may include delayed language development, word order confusion, word recall issues, difficult fine motor development and coordination, over sensitivity or under sensitivity of the mouth, and trouble reading, writing, and spelling (1997). Because there are so many possible symptoms of developmental apraxia, it is important to have children evaluated by a professional to rule out other causes of speech problems (1997). Developmental apraxia is believed by many researchers to be a neurologically based speech-motor disorder, but exact causes have not been isolated (Causes of Apraxia, 2010). Researcher’s studies have not shown a difference or abnormalities in the brains of children with developmental apraxia (2002). Children with developmental apraxia often have family members with learning disabilities or communication disorders (2002). Researchers continue to conduct studies to find any brain abnormalities and genetic factors which may cause developmental apraxia (2005). Speech language therapy is used for treating developmental apraxia. Intensive intervention which begins early is best for children with this disorder (Lederman, 2012). In the beginning, children should have treatment 3-5 times per week (1997). Children diagnosed with developmental apraxia show improvement more quickly when they receive treatment individually (1997). Speech language therapy for children with developmental apraxia differs from the therapy of children with other language disorders (2012). Treatment is based on the principles of motor learning, including repetition to establish and develop motor plans, practice opportunities to maintain learned patterns, use of relevant words and phrases, increased sensory feedback, and work on sound and word sequences (2012). There are still many things to learn about developmental apraxia, and studies regarding causes and treatments are still ongoing (2002). There is also research being done to find more specific criteria to identify and diagnose developmental apraxia and to distinguish it from other communication disorders (2002). References American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Childhood Apraxia of Speech (1997). www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/childhoodapraxia.htm Lederman, D. (2012). Speech Language Therapy for Childhood Apraxia of Speech. www.donnalederman.com/disorder-types/apraxia-of-speech.php National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. Apraxia of Speech (2002). www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/pages/apraxia.aspx University of Rochester Medical Center. Causes of Apraxia (2010). www.urmc.rochester. edu/speech-pathology/speech-language-disorders/apraxia/causes-apraxia.cfm Web MD. Apraxia: Symptoms, Causes, Tests, Treatments (2005). www.webmd.com/ Brain/apraxia-symptoms-causes-tests-treatments

Cognitive Theories Essay

Cognition is the process involved in thinking and mental activity. Cognitive theories are not centred on the unconscious mind of the child but emphasized the conscious thoughts. In this essay I will discuss the cognitive theories of Piaget and Vygotsky, who were both influential in forming a more scientific approach to analysing the cognitive development process of the child. I will outline Piaget’s theory of the four stages of cognitive development and Vygotsky’s theory on the sociocultural cognitive theory. I will also discuss how cognitive theories can be applied to the education of the child. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) believed that children are active in the process of their cognitive development. As Bee and Boyd note in The Developing Child â€Å"the child is an active participant in the development of knowledge† (Bee and Boyd, 1939, p.150). Piaget said that children reason and think differently at different stages in their lives. He believed that children process through four stages of cognitive development. Each stage is characterised by an overall structure and a sequence of development. According to Piagetian theory, these structures consist of â€Å"schemes† or â€Å"schemas†, which are a way of organising experience. These schemes adapt through a continuous process of â€Å"assimilation† and â€Å"accommodation†, in an attempt to achieve â€Å"equilibrium†, which is the balance between the two. Assimilation is the process of adapting new experiences to fit into existing schemes. Accommodation is the process of adapting existi ng schemes to fit new experiences. (Piaget’s Theory, www. 6th February 2012). The first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage. It occurs from birth to about two years of age. This stage is divided into six sub stages: reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of secondary circular reactions, tertiary circular reactions and beginning of representational thought. He believed that this stage is a period of practical discovery, which happens by interacting with the environment through the senses. Infants discover a relationship between their body and the environment. The infant develops independent thinking, a sense of self and the beginning of symbolic thought. This stage promotes that thought is based primarily on action. (Bee and Boyd, 1939). As Santrock says in Child Development â€Å"their main task is to coordinate their sensory impressions with their motor activity† (Santrock, 1982, p.188). The second of Piaget’s stages is the pre-operational stage. It occurs from two to about seven years of age. Piaget believed that at this time children fail to â€Å"conserve†. This is the understanding that things remain constant in terms of number, quantity and volume regardless of changes in appearance. He believed that at this stage children begin to represent the world through symbols e.g. drawing, images and words. This stage is characterized by the development of symbolic thought, representation, egocentrism, centration and intuitive thought. (Bee and Boyd, 1939). The third of Piaget’s theories is the concrete-operations stage. It occurs from seven to about eleven years of age. He believed this stage is characterized by the ability to perform operational tasks such as classification, seriation and reversibility. The child now understands the conservation of mass, length, weight and volume. As it states in Child Development â€Å"Concrete operations allow children to coordinate several characteristics rather than focus on a single property of an object† (Santrock, 1982, p.193). Children can use abstract thinking as long as they can relate back to concrete examples. In the concrete-operations stage, he believed the child is no longer egocentric; they have the ability to de-centre. (Bee and Boyd, 1939). The fourth and last stage of Piaget’s theories is the formal operations stage. It occurs between eleven and about fifteen years of age, although Piaget says that some people may never reach this stage of cognitive development. He believes that in this period individuals are able to think and reason scientifically (Piaget’s Theory, www. 6th February 2012). Children have the capacity to move beyond definite experiences and think in more logical ways. This stage is characterized by abstract thinking, hypothetical deductive reasoning and idealism.(Bee and Boyd, 1939). In contrast to Piaget, Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) did not believe in distinct stages of development. He saw the development of cognition as a continual process that is determined by the culture and social influences. He believed children are only as cognitively developed as the culture in which they live and that learning in conjunction with social interaction leads to cognitive development. As is says in The Developing Child â€Å"social interaction is required for cognitive development† (Bee and Boyd, 1939, p.163). One of the main ideas proposed by Vygotsky is the Zone of Proximal Development. This refers to the distance between the actual development of a child through individual problem solving and the level of development through problem solving under the guidance of an adult. A child’s actual development level indicates a child’s level of mental development at a particular time. It indicates the functions that have already matured in the child. A child’s zone of proximal development show the functions that have not matured yet, but that are in the process of maturing and developing. (Learning Theories, www. 7th February 2012). Vygotsky also believed that language played an important role in a child’s cognitive development. He believed language and thought develop independently and when the child is about two years of age they come together. Vygotsky describes three stages of development in language. The first stage is social speech or external speech. A child uses external speech to express simple thoughts and emotions such as crying or laughing. The second stage is egocentric speech, it is usually found in children between the ages of three and seven. The child will talk to him/herself during activities. They think out loud in an attempt to guide their own behaviour. The third stage is inner speech. As the child gets older he/she will begin to supress egocentric speech in the form of inner speech, and it is inner speech that becomes the child’s thoughts. Vygotsky proposed that language allows the child a greater freedom of thought and leads to cognitive development. (Santrock, 1982). As it states in Child Development â€Å"Children must use language to communicate with orders before they can focus inward on their own thoughts† (Santrock, 1982, p.202). Both Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory and Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory have a profound effect on the educational process and can be applied in many ways. Piaget and Vygotsky agree that the child actively takes part in his/her education and therefore require a style of teaching that provides opportunities to be active participants in their own learning. Both theories view the child as individual beings. They both agree with a child centred curriculum and see the role of the teacher as a guide and facilitator rather than a director. Both theories propose that the teacher has to have good observation skills and to have an understanding of the children in the learning environment. (Santrock, 1982). Vygotsky believed that education held a more important role in the child’s cognitive development. He proposed the involvement of the teacher to guide the child through his/her zone of proximal development and that instruction should be based on the child’s potential level. Vygotsky’s theory proposes using peers as tutors in supporting and guiding the child. He believed that thinking depended on language skills and is developed and maintained by social interaction. Learning involves at least two people therefore the probable scope of Zone of Proximal Development is dependent on the skills of both the child and the teacher. (Santrock, 1982). However, Piaget saw education as a method of refinement for the already developing cognitive skills. He believed cognitive development cannot be accelerated through instruction and concepts should not be taught until the child has reached the right stage. Piaget believed children are able to work best when they are active. He saw the child as a lone explorer discovering things for him/herself. He also believed the role of the teacher is a facilitator and guide to provide the correct materials and environment for the child. As it says in Child Development â€Å"Effective teachers listen, watch, and question students, to help them gain better understanding† (Santrock, 1982, p.197). Piaget’s theory suggests that the peers and not the adults in the classroom have a stronger influence on the child’s development. (Santrock, 1982). In this essay I have discussed the cognitive theories of Piaget and Vygotsky and how they can be applied to the education of the child. Piaget and Vygotsky’s impact on children’s cognitive development has been remarkable. Their cognitive theories have contributed to our understanding of the importance of developmental changes in children’s thinking and the cognitive processes. They looked at how children see the world and the influences that impact on the thinking process and saw that the cognitive theories are a positive approach to the child as they are active participants in their own development. For many years teachers have revised their approach in the classroom and applied the cognitive theories to the education of the child.

Extra Sensory Perception

â€Å"Factually substantiated reports abound confirming clairvoyant dreams that have led to the discovery of a discovery of missing child, the location of a lost object of value, or the recovery of a corpse. (Stinger 68) Frederic W. H. Myers was a philosopher who founded the Society for Psychical Research SPUR). The SPUR molded the Thought-Transference Committee to form experiments of those who believed they had ESP.. Reverend Creepy explained that he believed to the Thought -Transference Committee that all four of his daughters had the telepathy ability. Each of his daughters could read people's minds and playing cards that were taken randomly out of the deck. While they were being tested on their ability, the daughters had 382 tests to correctly identify the card number and the suit.Out Of all Of those times the girls acknowledged 202 of the cards correctly. There was one incident when en of the daughters mentioned 1 7 cards in a row correctly- suits and everything. â€Å"On seve ral occasions individual Creepy sisters were able to correctly name five cards in a row. Barrett said the odds of this happening by chance were â€Å"over 142 million to one. † (Killeen 20) The SPUR members went also went into more of the spontaneous telepathy. Dry. Joseph B. Rhine has many studies involving extra sensory perception at Duke University..Rhine thought that a traditional fifty two pack of cards would be more difficult for card guessers since you would have to determine the color ( red or black) , he number and the suit (spade, club, heart or diamond). The experiments specially created cards known as Keener cards which were originated from a psychologist known as Karl E. Keener who Rhine consulted his issue to. These cards were composed of twenty five cards with every card having a symbol The symbols on the Keener cards included a cross, a star, wavy lines, a square and a circle.Rhine believed that the cards were very useful for example of the Celery sisters who believed they had extra sensory perception due to the many cards that were correctly given. With the Keener card method the odds hat the subject answers correctly by chance is only twenty percent since it's a one in five chance of getting the symbol correct. Rhine continued to test hundreds of experiments with these Keener cards with student volunteers so their results varied. But one student caught his attention and was much different than the rest of the students.

Vertical Structure and Horizontal Structure of Organizations Assignment

Vertical Structure and Horizontal Structure of Organizations - Assignment Example Horizontal structures involve lateral relations, such as liaison functions, task forces, frequent unplanned meetings, and the use of formalized integrator roles. The advantage of a horizontal structure is a possibility of liberal and informal communication. The disadvantage is that this structure is effective and possible only in small organizations. The decentralized decision-making process allows employees greater involvement and fast decision-making. The advantage of vertical structure is greater control and delegation of authority. The disadvantages are lack of flexibility, decision-making from the top, centralization of authority and bureaucratic control of all activities. The examples of a vertical structure are Ford Motor Company, Toyota and Microsoft. These organizations have centralization of all management functions and require a high level of lateral interdepartmental coordination and communication involving unplanned face-to-face meetings and mutual adaptation. Coordination of sequential technologies is best accomplished through plans and schedules, whereas coordination of pooled technologies can be accomplished by the use of stan dard operating procedures (Mullins 304).